Economics and Globalization Essay Example for Free

Economics and Globalization Essay Everyday you hear it on the news, you read it in the papers, you overhear people talking about itand in every single instance the world globalization seems to have a different meaning. So, what is globalization?, there were a lot of debate about this issue. At a top political and economic level, globalization is the process of denationalization of market, political and legal systems. The consequences of this political and economic restructuring on local economies, human welfare and environment are the subject of an open debate among international organizations, governmental institutions and the academic world. (7, www.globalization.com/intro.cfm) What is globalization? Is it the integration of economic, political, and cultural systems across the globle? Or is it Americanization and United States dominance of world affairs? Is globalization a force of economic growth, prosperity, and democratic freedom? Or is it a force for environmental devastation, exploitation of the developing world, and suppression of human rights?( www.globalization101.org) Globalization is not a phenomenon it is not just some passing trend. today it is an overarching international system shaping the domestic politics and foreign relations of virtually every country, and we need to understand it as such. Globalization is much like fire. Fire itself is neither good or bad. Used properly, it can cook good, sterilize equipment, from iron, and heat our homes. Used carelessly , fire can destroy lives, towns and forests in an instant. As friedman says :globalization can be incredibly empowering and incredibly coercive it can democratize opportunity and democratize panic. It makes the whales bigger and the minnows stronger. It leaves you behind faster and faster, and it catches up to you faster and faster. While it is homogenizing cultures, it is also enabling people to share their unique individuality farther and wider.*+(web) But the question here what is driving globalization?, globalization Is driven by the strategic responses of firms as they exploit market opprtunties and adapt to change in their technological and institutional environment, and attempt to steer these changes to their advantage. The O E C D groups the factors shaping globalization into four general categories, which are inter-linked: -firm behavior : Strategic , pre-emptive and imitative behavior. Exploitation of competitive advantages: use of superior technology , organization, production or marketing. Consolidation of competitive advantages: gain access to highly skilled people, advanced technological and commercial infrastructure, lower Labour costs, and raw material. Organizational changes; adoption of lean production methods and more horizontal internal and external organizational structure. -Technology Related factors declining computing, communication, co-ordination and transport costs. Increasing importance of R D , coupled with rising R D costs. Shortening product lives. Shortening of limitation time lags. Rapid growth of knowledge -intensive industries. Increasing customization of both intermediate and finished goods. Increasing importance of customer oriented services. Economic factors Availability of key production factors Productivity differentials. Fluctuations in exchange rates. Differences in the business cycle. Catching up by lagging economies. (changing paradigms , Thomas Claake and stewaat clegg, p90)). But according to Thomas Friedman in his book Lexus and the Olive tree he explains three major factoes for the spread of globalization: Which are -the democratization of tecngology. the democratization of finance. -the democratization of information. International expansion has been driven by firm strategies based on their technologies and organizational advantages shaped by a number of factors of government policies,  technological factors driving expansion include the rapid growth of knowledge intensive industries which are foreign investment intensive industries which are foreign investment intensive use intra firm trade intensively and  collaborate externally in development the need to recop growing R D costs find highly trained and skilled workers and organize production more efficiently underpinned by declining communication and transport costs. Increase importance of customer sevice. Macroeconomic factors include market development in different countries and region. Avalibility of key production factors, product differentials, fluctuation in exchange ates, differences in business cycle, catching up by lagging economies. Government policies , significant influence firm strategies by liberalizing capital investment and trade flows, promptly regional integration and promptly competitiveness. Trade policy of liberalization of trade and invested are enabling factors which have driven global expansion and increased the integration of production and markets.competiton policies(changing paradigms , Thomas Claake and stewaat clegg, p90)). Second, the techmolgy, people have been able to travel the world for the past 500 years, the difference now is that they are connected immediately.Th internet boom in 1990 made people relaise that business could operate more or less unconstrained by geography, 24 a day , 7 days a week , 365 day a year. This new faster moving changing business environment have driven companies of all sizes to organize themselves into smaller more responsive , focused unti. The faster that drives globalization is making behavior is more tribal. John Nasibih, author of global pardox argues that the more we become economically interdependent the more we hold on to what constitute our core basic identity. Implementing a homogenized western culture, such countries as indousia , Russia , france have passed laws to preserve their identity. Matters are further complicaty by the shift from trdational nation states to network. The role of diasporas in developing the economic and political fortunes of many counties is significant . See the role of the chiness  dispopora in driving the economic development of many asian states. Technology is driving a global changing in many other areas, affecting the context of strategic decisions.Laura DSndrea Tyson, dean of London Bsuiness School and a leading economic adviser to Bill Clinton from 1996 to 2000, highlighted the main forces driving globalization: The basic factor driving is technology .its trite to day but its true ./ the two major development taking place in the world are demographic and interconnectedness. Interconnectedness is about transportation and communication and that driven bytechnolgy. Demographic is actually about biotechnolgyical science. (Kourdi, BUSINESS STRATEGY) Tecnhlogy did not inevent a new business paradigm but it has transformed business opening up a multi trade of ways to add value, increase sale, reduce costs and manage more efficiently. Understanding the nature of this transformation is valuable for decision making. An information firestorm rages in most business and how it is manges is crucial to success. A consequenceas of the increase in line activity is that information can be leverages to create new sources of value . it is important to combine the power of information and technology qwith common sense approach to management. So tech. And infor, are very importat factor what also effect the economy which also cause globalization. (Kourdi, Business strategy).

Th Brain :: essays research papers

Your brain has two sides ,and each has a distinctly different way of looking at the world. The more we integrate those two sides, the more developed we make ourselves. Integration not only increases our ability to creatively solve problems, but to control physical problems such as epilepsy and migraines. Even more startling is evidence coming to light that we have become a "left-brain culture". Your brain's right and left side have distinctly different ways of looking at the world. Your two hemispheres are as different from each other as me to you. The left brain controls the right side of the body (the exception to this occurs with left handed people which is 15 percent of the population) and is logical scientific, judgmental and verbal. It's interested in the facts, and efficiency. The right brain controls the left side of the body and deals with the creativity and imagination. It is concerned more with the visual and emotional side of life. As you read, your left-side is sensibly making connections and analyzing the meaning of the words, the syntax and other complex relation-ships while putting it into a "language" you can understand. Meanwhile, the right side is providing emotional and even humerous cues, recognizing visual information and causing you to find humor or sadness. While all of this is going on, the two sides are constantly communicating with each other across a connecting fiber tract called the corpus callosum. There is a certain amount of overlap but essentially the two hemispheres of the brain are like two different personalities that working alone would serve no efficient purpose, but when functioning together bring all things into perspective. The most creative decision making and problem solving come about when both sides work together. The left brain analyzing issues, problems and barriers; the right brain generating fresh approaches; and the left brain translating the into plans of action. "In a time of vast change like the present, the intuitive side of the brain operates so fast it can see what's coming," says Dr. Howard Eisenberg, a medical doctor with a degree in psychology who has studied hemispheric relationships. "The left brain is too slow, but the right can see around corners." An increasing number of medical professionals believe that being in touch with our brain, especially the right half, can help control medical problems. For some doctors use "imaginable thinking" to control everything from migraines to asthma, to high blood pressure. It is said that by teaching someone to raise to raise their temperature - by imaging they are sunbathing or in a warm bath- they can control their circulatory Th Brain :: essays research papers Your brain has two sides ,and each has a distinctly different way of looking at the world. The more we integrate those two sides, the more developed we make ourselves. Integration not only increases our ability to creatively solve problems, but to control physical problems such as epilepsy and migraines. Even more startling is evidence coming to light that we have become a "left-brain culture". Your brain's right and left side have distinctly different ways of looking at the world. Your two hemispheres are as different from each other as me to you. The left brain controls the right side of the body (the exception to this occurs with left handed people which is 15 percent of the population) and is logical scientific, judgmental and verbal. It's interested in the facts, and efficiency. The right brain controls the left side of the body and deals with the creativity and imagination. It is concerned more with the visual and emotional side of life. As you read, your left-side is sensibly making connections and analyzing the meaning of the words, the syntax and other complex relation-ships while putting it into a "language" you can understand. Meanwhile, the right side is providing emotional and even humerous cues, recognizing visual information and causing you to find humor or sadness. While all of this is going on, the two sides are constantly communicating with each other across a connecting fiber tract called the corpus callosum. There is a certain amount of overlap but essentially the two hemispheres of the brain are like two different personalities that working alone would serve no efficient purpose, but when functioning together bring all things into perspective. The most creative decision making and problem solving come about when both sides work together. The left brain analyzing issues, problems and barriers; the right brain generating fresh approaches; and the left brain translating the into plans of action. "In a time of vast change like the present, the intuitive side of the brain operates so fast it can see what's coming," says Dr. Howard Eisenberg, a medical doctor with a degree in psychology who has studied hemispheric relationships. "The left brain is too slow, but the right can see around corners." An increasing number of medical professionals believe that being in touch with our brain, especially the right half, can help control medical problems. For some doctors use "imaginable thinking" to control everything from migraines to asthma, to high blood pressure. It is said that by teaching someone to raise to raise their temperature - by imaging they are sunbathing or in a warm bath- they can control their circulatory

Psychiatry and Deinstitutionalization Essay

There is an agreement that about 2.8% of the US adult population suffers from severe mental illness. The most severely disabled have been forgotten not only by society, but by most mental health advocates, policy experts and care providers. Deinstitutionalization is the name given to the policy of moving severely mentally ill patients out of large state institutions and then closing the institutions as a whole or partially. Deinstitutionalization is a multifunctional process to be viewed in a parallel way with the existing unmet socioeconomical needs of the persons to be discharged in the community and the development of a system of care alternatives (Mechanic 1990, Madianos 2002). The goal of deinstitutionalization is that people who suffer day to day with mental illness could lead a more normal life than living day to day in an institution. The movement was designed to avoid inadequate hospitals, promote socialization, and to reduce the cost of treatment. Many problems developed from this policy. The discharged individuals from public psychiatric hospitals were not ensured the medication and rehabilitation services necessary for them to live independently within the community. Many of the mentally ill patients were left homeless in the streets. Some of the discharged patients displayed unpredictable and violent behaviors and lacked direction within the community. A multitude of mentally ill patients ended up incarcerated or sent to emergency rooms. This placed a huge burden on the jail systems. Communities were not the only ones to suffer. Those who suffered with mental illness were the ones who were ultimately affected. The stereotypes attached to mental illness were enough for some to not get the appropriate help that they needed. Often times, the communities would not get involved, discarding those who suffer with mental illness. Commonly, those with mental disorders do not have the means or abilities to take care of themselves, re lying heavily on state or local centers for help. If the centers are not there to help, where are they to go? Because of deinstitutionalization, there are those, who live on the streets, are put in jails, or are left to fight for their lives alone. In the United States in the nineteenth century, hospitals were built to house and care for people with chronic illness, and mental health care was a local responsibility. Individual states assumed primary responsibilities for mental hospitals beginning in 1890. In the first part of the twentieth century many patients received custodial care in state hospitals. Custodial care means care in which the patient is watched and protected, but a cure is not sought. After the National Institutes of Mental Health was founded, new psychiatric medications were developed and introduced into state mental hospitals beginning in 1955. The new medicines brought hope. President John F. Kennedy’s 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act promoted and sped up the trend toward deinstitutionalization with the establishment of a network of community health centers. In the 1960s, when Medicare and Medicaid were introduced, the federal government took on a share of responsibility for mental health care costs. That trend continued into the 1970s with the placement of the Supplemental Security Income program in 1974. State governments promoted and helped accelerate deinstitutionalization, especially of the elderly. Deinstitutionalization is directly linked with the state and the financial support of the program. In several countries the shift from the welfare state to the caused dramatic negative impact in the organization of the delivery of effective and adequate mental health care for the unstable low class mentally ill individuals. As hospitalization costs increased, both the federal and state governments were motiv ated to find less expensive alternatives to hospitalization. The 1965 amendments to Social Security shifted about 50 percent of the mental health care costs from states to the federal government. This motivated the government to promote deinstitutionalization. In the 1980s, managed care systems started to review the use of inpatient hospital care for patients that suffered with mental health issues. Public frustration along with concern and private health insurance policies created financial bonuses to admit fewer people to hospitals and to discharge inpatients quicker, limit the length of patient stays in the hospital, or to produce less costly forms of patient care. Deinstitutionalization also describes the adjustment process that those with mental illnesses are removed from the effects of living in a mental health facility. Since people may become accustomed to institutional environments, they sometimes act and behave like they are still living within the institution; therefore, adjusting to life outside of an institution can be very diffic ult. Deinstitutionalization gives those living with mental illness the chance to regain freedom. With the assistance of social workers and through psychiatric therapy, former inpatients can adjust to everyday life outside of institutional walls. This aspect of deinstitutionalization promotes recovery for the many that have been put into different group homes and those who have been made homeless. A number of factors led to an increase in homelessness, including macroeconomic shifts, but researchers also saw a change related to deinstitutionalization. Studies from the late 1980s indicated that one-third to one-half of homeless people had severe psychiatric disorders, often co-occurring with substance abuse. The homeless mentally ill represented an immediate challenge to the mental health field in the 1980s. Those homeless who have histories of being institutionalized stand as reminders of the cons of deinstitutionalization. Mentally ill homeless persons who never have been treated often speak of unfulfilled promises of community-based care after deinstitutionalization. Homelessness and mental illness are social problems, very similar in some ways, but very different respectively. Patients were often discharged without sufficient preparation or support. A greater number of people with mental disorders became homeless or went to prison. Widespread homelessness occurred in some states in the USA. There are now about one million homeless chronically mentally ill persons in all the major cities of USA. Much has been learned during the era of deinstitutionalization. Many of the homeless mentally ill feel alienated from both society and the mental health system, that they are fearful and suspicious, and that they do not want to give up what they see as their own personal sense of independence, living on the streets where they have to answer to no one. They may be too severely mentally ill and disorganized to respond to any efforts of help. They may not want a mentally ill identity, may not wish to or are not able to give up their isolated life-style and their independence, and may not wish to acknowledge their dependency. Community services that developed included housing with full or partial supervision in the community. Costs have been reported to be as costly as inpatient hospitalization. Although reports show that deinstitutionalization has been positive for the majority of patients, it also has been ineffective in many ways. Expectations of community care have not been met. It was expected that community care would lead to social integration. Many discharged patients remain without work, have limited social contacts and often live in sheltered environments. New community services were often unable to meet the diverse needs. Services in the community sometimes isolated the mentally ill within a new â€Å"ghetto†. Families can play a very important role in the care of those who would typically be placed in long-term treatment centers. However, many mentally ill people lack any such help due to the extent of their conditions. The majority of those who would be under continuous care in long-stay psychiatric hospitals are paranoid and delusional to the point that they refuse help and do not believe they need it, which makes it difficult to treat them. Some other studies pointed out the harmful effect on mental health from other situations related to economy, such as unemployment, community’s economic hardship and social disruption as well as criminality and violence. Moving mentally ill persons to community living leads to various concerns and fears, from both the individuals themselves and the members of the community. Many community members fear that the mentally ill persons will be violent. Despite common perceptions by the public and media that people with mental disorders released into the community are more likely to be dangerous and violent, a study showed that they were not more likely to commit a violent crime more than those in the neighborhoods. The study was taken in a neighborhood where substance abuse and crime was usually high. The aggression and violence that does occur is usually within family settings rather than between strangers. Despite the constant movement toward deinstitutionalization and the closing of institutions, deinstitutionalization continues to be a controversial topic in many different states. Many have researched and examined the pros and cons along with the relative risks and benefits associated with institutional and community living. Many studies have examined changes in adaptive or challenging behavior associated with being moved from an institution to a community setting. Summaries of the research indicated that, overall, adaptive behavior were almost always found to get better with movement to a community living environment from institutions, and that parents who were often opposed to deinstitutionalization were almost always satisfied with the results of the move to the community after it occurred (Larson & Lakin, 1989; Larson & Lakin, 1991). A recent study showed that certain behavior skills found that self-care skills and communication skills, academic skills, social skills, community living skills, and physical development improved significantly with deinstitutionalization (Lynch, Kellow & Willson, 1997). It becomes apparent that deinstitutionalized persons with serious mental illness in many places across the world are subject to a plethora of health and social problems and are facing significant difficulties in the process of accessing health care services. In the USA people with severe mental illness due to their social class and financial stability, are subject to underfunded health d mental health care systems. While attempting to properly care for mentally ill persons, the health care system is trying to overcome a wide range of obstacles, such as lack of reimbursement for health education and family support, inadequate and under skilled case of management services, poor coordination and communication between services and lack of treatment for co-occurring psychiatric and substance abuse disorders. Last but not least, deinstitutionalization was often linked with the community’s reaction and negative attitudes, prejudice, stereotypes, stigma and discrimination against the community placement of persons with serious mental illness (Matschinger and Angermeyer 2004). However, stigma and negative attitudes can always be changed if people are willing to change their beliefs and if appropriate and effective community mental health care efforts are made in regards to helping persons living day to day with mental illness. Deinstitutionalization was not only attempted in the USA but it was attempted in countries such as Italy, Greece, Spain, and other Eastern countries. In those countries deinstitutionalization was shown to be successful when psychiatric reform was a priority and was completed with an effective system of community based services and sufficient financial care. This means that the very complex process of deinstitutionalization is a step by step multidimensional process. Deinstitutionalization attempts to focus on the individual’s life needs, including the continuance of treatment, health and mental health care, housing, employment, education and a community support system that works. If family exists and is involved in the life of the mentally ill person, the state eliminates the burden of care. â€Å"The final goal is the community autonomous tenure of the suffering individual and his/her integration, in a status of full social and clinical recovery (Matschinger and Angermeyer 2004). Works Cited Bachrach LL. 1976. Deinstitutionalization: An analytical review and sociological review. Rockville M.D. National Institute of Mental Health.Dowdall, George. â€Å"Mental Hospitals and Deinstitutionalization.† Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, edited by C. Aneshensel and J. Phelan. New York: Kluwer Academic. 1999. Grob, Gerald. â€Å"Government and Mental Health Policy: A Structural Analysis.† Milbank Quarterly 72, no. 3 (1994): 471-500. Hollingshead A.B. and Redlich F. 1958. Social class and mental illness. New York: J. Wiley Redick, Richard, Michael Witkin, Joanne Atay, and others. â€Å"Highlights of Organized Mental Health Services in 1992 and Major National and State Trends.† Chapter 13 in Mental Health, United States, 1996, edited by Ronald Mandersheid and Mary Anne Sonnenschein. Washington DC: US-GPO, US-DHHS, 1996. Scheid, Teresa and Allan Horwitz. â€Å"Mental Health Systems and Policy.† Handbook for the Study of Mental Health. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1999. Schlesinger, Mark and Bradford Gray. â€Å"Institutional Change and Its Consequences for the Delivery of Mental Health Services.† Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, edited by C. Aneshensel and J. Phelan. New York: Kluwer Academic. 1999. Scull, Andrew. Social Order/Mental Disorder. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. Witkin, Michael, Joanne Atay, Ronald Manderscheid, and others. â€Å"Highlights of Organized Mental Health Services in 1994 and Major National and State Trends.† Chapter 13 in Mental Health, United States, 1998, edited by Ronald Mandersheid and Marilyn Henderson. Washington DC: US-GPO, US-DHHS Pub. No. (SMA)99-3285, 1998.

How The Environment Influences Schizophrenia and Possible Prevention - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2752 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/08/07 Category Psychology Essay Level High school Tags: Schizophrenia Essay Did you like this example? Abstract: Schizophrenia is a complex and heterogeneous disease that affects over 1.5 million people in the United States alone. It causes structural abnormalities in multiple brain regions as well as alters neuronal signaling causing a plethora of symptoms that affect an individuals day-to-day life. Globally it accounts for almost 1% of disability adjusted life years (DALYs), yet there is no known cure (Samele, 2007). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How The Environment Influences Schizophrenia and Possible Prevention" essay for you Create order However, for the disease to manifest it is currently thought that there must be both a genetic vulnerability, as well as environmental factors that result in a disease state. There is significant evidence showing that prenatal malnutrition (in specific regards to folate and vitamin D), childhood trauma, IQ and social cognition, social stressors, adolescent cannabis use, and expression of endogenous retroviruses all contribute to the development of schizophrenia (Davis, 2015). The large role epigenetics plays in the development schizophrenia presents an untapped potential to decrease rates of the disease through preventative treatment. Introduction: Schizophrenia is a form of psychosis that manifests in the early 20s for males and late 20s for females. While the exact mechanisms of the disease are unknown it is hypothesized that it results from improper neural development leads to the widespread dysfunction of multiple pathways in the brain. Functional scans show abnormal activity in both the frontal and temporal lobes as well as a reduction of tissue volume in these regions. This decrease in volume is thought to be a result of thinning of the cerebral cortex in the frontal and temporal lobes. Schizophrenic patients also typically have larger ventricles that control subjects. This is hypothesized to be the result of decreased tissue volume (Aleman, 2014). Increased dopamine secretion by the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is also commonly seen in schizophrenia; this causes abnormalities in the mesocorticolimbic pathway. This pathway is thought to be the main contributor to positive symptoms and the target for most anti-psychotic me dications used to manage symptoms (Aleman, 2014). The disease is characterized by 3 different subsets of symptoms: positive, negative, and cognitive. Positive symptoms are the most distinct symptoms of the disease and are categorized by an additional feature in which there is no corresponding normal phenotype. These symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and catatonic behavior. Negative symptoms are the loss of normal function including the lost ability to express and distinguish emotions as well as loss of motivation. This is usually seen in the form of avolition (loss of interest/motivation), alogia (poverty of speech), and flat affect (inappropriate response). The third and final subset of symptoms are classified as cognitive and are generally more subtle. When tested schizophrenic patients often show decreased cognitive functioning, memory consolidation, and learning abilities- this relationship is linear, with more severe cases showing greater cognitive declines (Vacic, 2013). The diagnosis of this disease requires at leas t one positive symptom accompanied with either or both negative symptoms or cognitive symptoms as well (Vacic, 2013). Research shows that schizophrenia is largely a genetic disease†having a diagnosed parent has a conference of 10% while having a monozygotic twin with the disease infers a 50% probability of the other twin also having the disease. Over one-hundred genes have been linked to schizophrenia; however, the underlying mechanisms and effects of different genes are yet to be known (Ripke, 2014). Currently the development of schizophrenia is a two-hit hypothesis, meaning that without environmental influence, individuals with a genetic vulnerability will never develop schizophrenia (Davis, 2015). Malnutrition: Malnutrition is perhaps the most apparent and notable influencer. Prenatally malnourished rats were found to have decreased neural aborization in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus for both dopaminergic and seratonogic neurons (Davis, 2015). After the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944 and 1945 as well as the famine in China during the 1960s, schizophrenia rates in the offspring of mothers who lived through the famines doubled (Davis, 2015). Folate, iron, and vitamin D deficiencies are all micronutrients associated with later onset of schizophrenia. An increase in homocysteine plasma levels in the third trimester of pregnancy (a marker for low folate levels) is associated with a two-fold increase in risk for schizophrenia (study controlled for both ethnicity and education) (McGrath, 2011). It is hypothesized that a deficiency in folate induces changes in methylation causing epigenetic changes in the expression of maternally imprinted genes (Kirkbride, 2012). Plasma levels of anemia in th e third trimester (marker for iron deficiency) were shown to confer a four-fold increase (Kirkbride, 2012). Lastly, vitamin D, which is perhaps the most studied with regard to schizophrenic onset, when supplemented is associated with a 77% risk reduction in subsequent schizophrenia (McGrath, 2004). The role of vitamin D deficiency is the proposed explanation for the increased rates of schizophrenia in offspring born in the winter-spring, migrant populations, and populations that live far from the equator (Graham, 2015). Childhood Trauma: Meta-analyses suggest that people with a history a trauma are 3x more likely to develop psychosis later in life (Davis, 2015). Those who underwent past traumatic experience also reported worse positive symptoms than other patients with the disease. This is thought to be the result of increased cortisol secretion hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activity that is commonly seen in trauma survivors (Laurens, 2016). Brain Derived Neurotropic Factor (BDNF) has shown to have decreased mRNA levels in the hippocampus of those exposed to trauma which have been shown to cause volume reductions. This supports evidence for the widely held hypothesis that the hippocampal decreases seen in schizophrenia are a ramification of decreased expression in BDNF (Bennett Lagopoulos, 2014). Social Stressors: Marginalized, alienated, and/or migrant groups of a population are shown to have over 2 times greater of a risk for development of schizophrenia. Poverty, social uprooting, and discrimination are more prevalent in these populations suggesting that social stress contributes to the difference in rate between native and marginalized populations (Susser Patel, 2014). This may have major global health implications as the people most likely to need resources and support for schizophrenia dont have access to these types of services, exacerbating the problem (Susser Patel, 2014). IQ: Lower IQs have been connected with a higher risk of schizophrenia. Children with an IQ more than 2 SD below the average have an 8x greater risk of developing schizophrenia (Leeson, 2009). Some studies have shown that an above average IQ may decrease the risk of developing the disease; however other studies suggest that a higher IQ may confer an increased risk for a subtype of the disease (Davis, 2015). HERV activation: Several studies indicate that the genetic modulation of human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) elements can alter neuronal development when modulated at vulnerable stages of development. HERVs constitute 8% of the human genome; however they usually remain unexpressed (dormant) unless stressors, parasites, or other factors that upregulate expression of harmful viral transposed DNA (Davis, 2015). There has been extensive research connecting the parasite Taxmoplasma Gondii to HERV expression and later onset of schizophrenia (Torrey, 2006). Knowing some of the epigenetic factors gives society the opportunity to mitigate these risks and combat schizophrenia through preventative measures. While there is no known cure, if this debilitating disease can be tackled from the other side it may be possible to prevent schizophrenic onset and limit the people that have to live with the side effects of anti-psychotic medications. Methods: A population based control study was done to assess neonatal vitamin D deficiency and its effects on the risk of schizophrenia. It was hypothesized that lower concentrations of vitamin D would confer a greater risk of schizophrenia. To do this an individually match case-control study was conducted from a population-based cohort. This included 424 healthy individuals as well as 242 individuals with schizophrenia. Using liquid chomotogrophy tandem mass spectroscopy, the concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3(25[OH]D3) was measured. The concentration of 25- hydroxyvitamin D3(25[OH]D3) was obtained from neonatal dried blood spots that are stored for all individuals born in Denmark since May 1, 1981. By identifying people with schizophrenia that who were born later than May 1 of 1981, they were able to find a control that was born the exact same dya, was the same sex, and had no history of schizophrenia and compare neonatal vitamin D levels. Those in the lower 3 quintiles for of 25- hydrox yvitamin D3(25[OH]D3) concentration (lower than 40 nmol/L) were linked to a 2-fold increased risk for schizophrenia. This supported the hypothesis that low concentrations of neonatal vitamin D are associated with an elevated risk for schizophrenia later in life (McGrath, 2010). An epidemiological study based in Finland looked at trends in seasonal birth, and migrant populations in relation to rates of schizophrenia. Using information regarding schizophrenic diagnosis from the Finish Civil Registration system, they found over 5x greater rates of schizophrenia in dark-skinned migrant populations and a 3x greater rate in individuals born in winter or spring months. These two different cohorts of people are statistically known to have profoundly higher rates of vitamin D deficiency, suggesting that vitamin D deficiency is linked to the development of schizophrenia; however, the authors of this study emphasize that this is mearly an association and there are likely numerous variables that may have influenced the results of the study (McGrath, 2011). As mentioned previously, another risk factor thought to contribute to the onset of schizophrenia is infections that lead to variations in genetic expression. One of the most prominent infections associated with schizophrenia is a parasite known as Toxoplasma Gondii. Research from the Center For Disease Control (CDC) measured the number of antibodies against T. Gondii in groups of people with and without schizophrenia. Controls were randomly selected and schizophrenic individuals had been diagnosed using current diagnostic criteria there were two different groups of schizophrenic individuals in the study: medicated and unmediated. Antibodies were measured using enzyme immunoassays. As predicted, in this study, as well as many others, the schizophrenic patients had significantly more antibodies to T. Gondii than controls. There was also a statistical difference in the number of antibodies between medicated and non-medicated patients, with medicated patients having fewer antibodies. Thi s suggests anti-psychotics may cause a decrease in antibody levels (Torrey, 2006). In a study aimed towards prevention of schizophrenia, emotional recognition was analyzed to determine if schizophrenia could be predicted by testing emotional recognition. Tree different groups were compared: (1) First-episode schizophrenic patients, (2) individuals with high risk of schizophrenia, (3) control. High risk individuals were identified using genetic factors. This was defined as those who had a first-degree relative with schizophrenia (this was assessed using the Family History Research Diagnostic Criteria). The PANSS test is the best test to acess psychiatric symtoms; this test was used to control for degree of symptoms. The experiment consisted of over 110 slides of faces representing fundamental emotions- sadness, anger, happiness, disgust, surprise, fear, and neutral. These were shown for 0.5 seconds 4 slides consisting of a number between 1 and 10 were randomly integrated to control for attention. Using a Prosody was also assessed using 4 different phrases: They must stay here.; He will come soon.; She will drive fast.; and We must go there. These 4 sentences were spoken with with different moods by actors. Subjects listened to 60 total sentences with a total of 5 different emotions. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant difference between controls and the other 2 groups in the interpretation of both sadness and fear. The statistical test utilized were a one-way ANOVA and an ANCOVA which was adjusted for sex, age, and current IQ. Significant differences were seen between control groups and both high risk individuals as well as the first-episode schizophrenics with regards to sadness and fear when evaluating emotional recognition in facial expressions; however, there wasnt significant variance between the other emotions. For Prosody, the only emotion with a statistical difference between controls and both high-risk and first-episode schizophrenics was anger. While the results of facial recognition supported the hypothesis the res ults with regards to prosody did not, suggesting that it is schizophrenia cannot be identified simply by the inability to interpret fear and sadness (Amminger, 2012). Discussion: With more and more research providing evidence of environmental factors that contribute to schizophrenic onset, preventative measures have become easier to implement and there is a greater understanding of the tests needed to determine high-risk individuals (Brown, 2011). Malnutrition: The results from studies aimed at vitamin D show that vitamin D levels of less than 40 nmol/L in utero greatly increase the risk for schizophrenia. It also explains why offspring born in certain seasons as well as migrant populations have dramatically higher rates of schizophrenia. This allows us to implement prevention initiatives in this regard. Education programs aimed to inform future mothers, high-risk populations as well as the general public about vitamin D deficiency in utero and the consequences associated with the deficiency would likely decrease rates of schizophrenia and minimize other consequences that result from vitamin D deficiency, such as rickets. In the majority of the Scandinavian countries programs targeting the high-risk populations such as dark skinned migrant populations provide vitamin D supplementation for these individuals. Dark-skinned migrants are on of the groups with the highest rates of schizophrenia as they have the greatest rates of vitamin D deficie ncy (McRaith, 2011). Their ancestors lived closer to the equator where there was plenty of sunlight; therefore, having the enzyme needed to synthesize vitamin D was evolutionarily unfavorable. Most prenatal vitamins contain 400 IU/day of vitamin D; however the State of Alaska Epidemiology released a report this year stating that 400 UI is not nearly enough. The study recommends pregnant women taking over twice that amount, 1,000 IU/day (McGraith, 2011). It is likely that with this newfound information companies will start changing the concentration of vitamin D in prenatal vitamins; however, women should be informed with regard to the amount of vitamin D they should be supplementing and may need to supplement vitamin D in addition to using a prenatal vitamin. While vitamin D is the most studied micronutrient linked to schizophrenia, supplementation of iron and folate (mentioned above) should parallel these preventative measures to mitigate risk further. Childhood Trauma: Limiting the risk due to trauma is not as straight-forward as vitamin D which can be solved by taking a pill. Childhood trauma is an issue in itself and there are many groups that strive to limit this such as Blue Knot in the United States that provides resources to children that are in traumatic situations or survivors of traumatic situation (Supporting adult survivors of childhood trauma abuse, 2018). Social services also serves to help limit the amount of children in abusive or neglecting homes, and most school systems require teachers to report signs or indications of possible abuse. Luckily the majority of children in the United States are well-cared for and protected from this risk factor, and hopefully that percentage will grow as more resources are put in place. Social Stressors: Populations accustomed to chronic social stress are known to have a 2x greater likelihood of developing schizophrenia. This may have major global health implications as the people most likely to need resources and support for schizophrenia dont have access to these types of services, exacerbating the problem (Susser Patel, 2014). Resources for low SES families exist; however, the resources available fall short of the need. Inclusive societies and distribution of financial opportunities are needed to help mitigate this risk factor. HERV activation and T. Gondii 12 out of 13 articles show that antibodies for T. Gondii are significantly higher in schizophrenic individuals than controls (Davis, 2015). Currently 1/3 of the population is infected with T. Gondii (Torrey, 2006). In many European states prenatal T. Gondii testing is required, yet it is rarely done in the United States. Testing, particularly for individuals with a family history (and thus a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia) could provide important information and instigate additional testing to determine if the baby has also been infected. Also as mentioned in the study outlined above, antipsychotics are linked to lower levels of antibodies against T. Gondii. When researched further it was found that some antipsychotic medications inhibit the growth of T. Gondii in cell-cultures (Torrey, 2006). This shows another potential way antipsychotics suppress the symptoms of schizophrenia and while it currently provides most insight into treatment, it is likely this information may contribute to preventative outlooks down the road. Emotional Recognition: While many studies suggest it may be possible to identify the future onset of schizophrenia by testing emotional recognition, results from the study outlined in the methods portion suggest that this is not a liable way to do so. While they did note some statistically significant findings these varied greatly based on the method in which the emotion was expressed- facial expressions and prosody (Amminger, 2012). While it may be possible in the future to identify high risk individuals by testing emotional recognition current studies havent produced a way in which to do this or the potential mechanisms behind it.